November 2001 1. Preliminaries: - Arc isn't finished. - Suggestions are invited. - Don't be too shocked (you may get used to it). Arc was the youngest language presented at LL1. It's about three weeks old. Most languages probably look pretty bad at that age, but I wanted to show Arc to people early on to get their opinions. A few of the ideas in Arc will seem shocking, especially to compiler writers. So bear with us. Some of these ideas will seem less shocking with time. Others may actually suck, and we'll redo those. 2. Lisp - A language with dialects. - No new Lisp since mid 80s (and not new then). - Languages different now: Unix won, big libraries, active development. - No onions in the varnish. Lisp is an unusual language because it has dialects. Lisp depends on a small, definite, core of operators, and any language that has these operators is a dialect of Lisp-- not just as a social custom, but in the formal sense that if you have the core operators you can define all the rest. If you design a language that has car, cdr, cons, quote, eq, cond, and a notation for functions made of conses, then you've designed a dialect of Lisp, even if you didn't mean to. It's about time for a new dialect of Lisp. The two leading dialects, Common Lisp and Scheme, have not been substantially changed since the 1980s. What a language is has changed since then. In 1985, a programming language was just a spec. Now, thanks to Perl, it means not just (and maybe not even) a spec, but also a good free implementation, huge libraries, and constant updates. Another thing has changed since 1985: Unix won. So there is a lot more agreement now about what you can expect from the OS. Common Lisp and Scheme date from a time when languages had to be OS-neutral. A programming language couldn't have a concept of a socket, for example; what if the underlying OS didn't have sockets? That has changed. Now a language that won't let you open a socket seems almost perversely inconvenient. If you just made a Lisp that could talk to the OS and had powerful string libraries, I think it would more than hold its own. We're hoping to do more than that though. The aim with Arc is not to update Common Lisp or Scheme. In Arc we're going to try to go back to the origins of Lisp, in McCarthy's 1960 paper, and rebuild the language from the bottom. In The Periodic Table, Primo Levi tells a story that happened when he was working in a varnish factory. He was a chemist, and he was fascinated by the fact that the varnish recipe included a raw onion. What could it be for? No one knew; it was just part of the recipe. So he investigated, and eventually discovered that they had started throwing the onion in years ago to test the temperature of the varnish: if it was hot enough, the onion would fry. We're going to try not to include any onions in Arc. Everything is open to question. For example, in Arc, lambda is called fn. This idea appalled me at first, but it seemed like fn would be shorter and at least as expressive. What if I was just used to lambda? So, with a queasy sense of duty, I decided to try it. And after a few days I actually liked fn better. Now it seems clear to me that lambda is an onion: Alonzo Church himself wouldn't have used it if he had to write out the word lambda each time. 3. A Language for Good Programmers - Target user: opposite of Java. - Programmable programming language. - By default, allow. - The language I wish someone would make for me. - Brevity (what you like about abstraction) Java was, as Gosling says in the first Java white paper, designed for average programmers. It's a perfectly legitimate goal to design a language for average programmers. (Or for that matter for small children, like Logo.) But it is also a legitimate, and very different, goal to design a language for good programmers. Languages designed for average programmers have to put safety first. Expert programmers, on the other hand, care only about power, and are going to be annoyed with any language that gets in their way in the name of safety. You see this difference in any tool, from cars to dishwashers. I don't know if anyone has consciously designed a language for good programmers before. There have been several languages that were in effect designed for good programmers, because good programmers designed them for their own use. C, Lisp, and Smalltalk all came about this way. In some ways it makes the problem easier when you can assume the user is a good programmer. Language designers often find themselves worrying about the mess users might make if they were allowed to do such-and-such. Once you assume the user is a good programmer, you automatically have the answer to any such question: let the user do whatever he wants. Lisp has always been way down that end of the continuum. John Foderaro called it "the programmable programming language", because there is so much the programmer can change. Arc aims to maximize this aspect of Lisp. Instead of assuming that we know what's good for the programmer to be allowed to get his hands on, we assume that the programmer will want to do things we never even imagined, and so will need to be able to get his hands on everything. Another thing good programmers like is brevity, and that is Arc's other main goal. You often hear that programming languages are good because they provide abstraction. I think what we really like is not abstraction per se but brevity. A way of expressing programs that was more abstract, but made your programs longer, would not be very enticing. (This is not just a hypothetical example. It happens in Prolog.) By brevity I don't mean that programs should require fewer characters. That counts for something, but it is more important to require fewer tokens. Perl is an inspiring example of brevity. Larry Wall broke all the rules, and in the process discovered some good ideas. Perl may be a kludge, but it makes your programs short, and you have to respect that. In Arc we hope to make programs as short or shorter, but at the same time to build the language up in a transparent way from clearly understood foundations. We're not doing this (just) out of fastidiousness. You have to build the language up transparently if you want users to be able to customize it. The chaotic semantics of Perl would make it very hard to add macros. 4. Other Principles - Do what programmers actually (secretly) want. - How code looks matters: short names, no swearing - Polymorphism: (+ "foo" "bar") -> "foobar" - Specially suited for Web apps. - Perl lesson: pronouns. We have a couple other design goals for Arc. We try to keep in mind that languages are for programmers, and so should do what programmers want. What programmers actually want may not be the same thing as what language designers consider to be good design. In such cases the language designers should toss their principles and listen to the programmers. You don't want to be like a modernist architect who designs a chair that is all right angles to conform to some preconceived idea of good design. All you're doing then is solving the wrong problem. Chairs (except for a few that are explicitly designed as sculpture) are for people to sit in. I was asking a friend of mine, who is just about the best programmer you could hope to meet, about creating new local variables. With some hesitation he admitted that he disliked the traditional Lisp let, because it introduced a new level of indentation as well. He was hesitant because he knew, in principle, that let was the "right" thing. At this point, you have to ask, "right for who?" because I don't think there are any programmers substantially smarter than this guy. If he wants to do something a certain way, that's the best test you'll get of what is good design-- better, certainly, than any abstract principle. Another thing programmers are reluctant to admit, but which almost all feel fairly strongly, is that it matters how code looks. Well, it does matter, a lot. We are going to try hard not only to make Arc beautiful, but to let you change the way the language looks if your idea of beauty is different. Software designers usually fall into either the short-name school or the long-name school. Unix and C favor short names. Common Lisp and Smalltalk are in the opposite camp. The argument for long names is that they are more descriptive, and so make it easier for programmers, especially beginners, to remember what the underlying operators do. The argument against long names is that they clutter up your program. Here again we are saved by our axiom that the user is a good programmer. We assume the user doesn't need operators to be called multiple-value-bind or invoke-restart-interactively to remember what they do. On the other hand, we're also going to try not to make the language look like a cartoon character swearing. Have you ever noticed that when you fill out some kind of Web form you tend to use all lowercase? Ordinary lowercase letters are less work to type than characters like #&%$. (Dan Giffin recently observed that if you measure Perl programs by the number of keys you have to press, they don't seem so short.) And lowercase letters are easier to read as well. You have to hit a kind of mental shift key to read symbols. As far as we can we're going to make Arc a smoothly lowercase language. Another thing many good programmers have in common is incipient carpal tunnel syndrome, so a language that's easy to type should be a win for them. Arc is quite polymorphic. The + function both adds numbers and concatentates strings. Having a separate operator for each is equivalent to having one operator, plus a type declaration. Having a single operator for both is equivalent to letting the programmer omit the declaration. Every language should be designed together with a big application written in it, so the designers can see whether the language works. C, for example, was sharpened on the systems programming projects that culminated in Unix. We're going to use Arc to write a platform for Web-based applications. The two will be tightly integrated, like C and Unix. We hope to make Arc the ideal language for writing Web-based apps-- the language we wish we'd had when we were writing Viaweb. This means that Arc will have to be good at manipulating strings, which has not in the past been a big concern for Lisp. One of the ways Perl makes programs shorter is to use a lot of pronouns. Lisp programmers have always done this to some extent with macros like aif, but it has generally been considered a slightly dubious trick, and has not as far as I know made it into any of the major Lisp dialects. In Arc we use a lot of pronouns. They make programs shorter, and having them gives more control to the programmer. (If a language lets things be implicit, the programmer always has the option of being explicit, but if the languages requires everything to be explicit, the programmer can't make things implicit.) 5. Syntax - CL/Scheme: s-expressions only.
        disadvantage: long-winded
- Dylan/Python: s-expressions hidden underneath.
        disadvantage: macros unnatural
- Arc: syntax as abbreviation.
        disadvantage: no syntax yet
Arc is going to have syntax. The Lisp world has agonized about this question for a long time. Since the beginning in fact, as several people pointed out at LL1. McCarthy intended the original Lisp to have syntax, but programmers preferred using raw s-expressions, so no one ever got around to implementing it. The argument for syntax has usually been that it would make Lisp more accessible to a "mainstream" audience. The designers of Dylan, which was intended to be Lisp for the masses, dutifully stuck a syntax onto the later versions. I didn't get the impression that they, personally, preferred writing programs in the new syntax. That is dangerous territory. By deciding to make Arc a language for good programmers, we get an answer to that side of the question at least. We don't have to dumb down the language to make it accessible to anyone. However, there is another advantage of syntax: it can make programs shorter. And that is a genuine win. So the answer (or an answer), I think, to the long pondered question of syntax for Lisp is: yes, have syntax, but only as abbreviation. Arc will have syntax, but it will translate in a clearly defined (and in fact, redefinable) way into underlying s-expressions. Nearly all the syntax will be optional, and moreover optional at the level of individual operators. As much as we can, we will make whatever we use to define syntax accessible to the programmer, so that you can customize the syntax however you like. Lisp is widely considered to be the best substrate for domain-specific little languages, and programmable syntax should help make it even better. The disadvantage of this approach is that we have no examples of syntax to show anyone yet. We have some ideas about it, but we are still working on the underlying s-expression language. Some things are fairly predictable, like infix math. But we want to get the most bang for the buck for desirable characters like [ and ], so we will probably wait to see what the most common idioms are before we decide what to abbreviate. Here are a couple ideas: x.y and x:y for (x y) and (x 'y) respectively. [+ _ 1] for (fn (x) (+ x 1)) We also plan to let programmers omit parentheses where no ambiguity would result, and show structure by indentation instead of parentheses. I find that I spontaneously do both these things when writing Lisp by hand on whiteboards or the backs of envelopes. 6. Arc Core - eval, car, cdr, cons, quote - cond split into cond + do (progn)
      CL:  (cond ((a x) (princ "!") (b x))
                 ((c x) (d x))
                 (t (e x)))
      Arc: (cond (a x) (do (pr "!") (b x))
                 (c x) (d x)
                       (e x))
- Usually use if, which binds it: (if (a x) (car it)) The core of Arc is much the same as the core of McCarthy's original 1960 Lisp. The operators eval, car, cdr, cons, and quote work the same when applied to symbols and lists (the only data types in the 1960 paper), except that car and cdr generate errors when applied to nil. The one operator we changed is cond. McCarthy, who wanted to keep his axioms to a minimum, buried progn within cond. That worked for his examples, but for programming in general you soon find you need a progn separate from the implicit progn of cond. Having an implicit progn in cond means every cond clause has to have an extra pair of parentheses. McCarthy said later that he thought he had gotten cond wrong, that it used too many parentheses, and this may be what he meant. Arc's cond doesn't have an implicit progn, and so you don't need the parentheses around each clause. We also omitted the t in the default clause, which seemed to be an onion. The example in the slide shows the same code in Common Lisp and in Arc. (Arc's do is Common Lisp progn, and pr is Common Lisp princ.) In Arc, cond is a low-level operator, used mainly in macroexpansions. Most of the time programmers use if, which is exactly the same, except that within a successful then-expression, the variable it will be bound to the result of the test-expression. 7. Assignment (Scope) - Lexical scope, single namespace. - = is setf (no set or setq). - Can create local vars by assignment.
      > (do (= x 5)
            (cons x 'a))
      (5 . A)
- Any sequence of code is a block. - Easy to write a non-scope block. Arc has lexical scope and a single namespace like Scheme. A variable whose value is a function is no different from any other. The evaluation rule is simply to evaluate the whole expression from left to right, and then apply the value of the first element to the values of the rest. The assignment operator is =. I was dubious about this, but decided to try it and see if I got used to it. It turns out to work well, even in prefix. Stripes stand out, which is why they get used on warning signs and poisonous animals. Here is a big difference between Arc and previous Lisps: local variables can be created implicitly by assigning them a value. If you do an assignment to a variable that doesn't already exist, you thereby create a lexical variable that lasts for the rest of the block. (Yes, we know this will make the code hard to compile, but we're going to try.) A block is a do, or any implicit do in one of Arc's predefined operators. It's easy to write a progn-like operator that doesn't have an effect on scopes: just write a function that takes any number of arguments and returns the last. Arc has a function, currently called justdo, that does this, but it is intended for use only in macros where you have to evaluate expressions sequentially without having them unexpectedly be in a new lexical contour. 8. Functions and Macros - lambda is fn: (fn (x) (cons x 'a)) - rfn (a macro) instead of labels.
      (rfn len (x)
        (if (no x)
            0
            (+ 1 (len (cdr x)))))
- Macros separate 1st class objs.
      (macro (test . body)
        `(if ,test (do ,.body)))
- To get local macros, just bind. Like any Lisp, Arc has first-class functions. There is a fn operator, like Scheme's lambda, that returns a new function. Arc has no labels or letrec. For defining recursive functions there is a macro called rfn, which is like fn except that it takes an additional first argument to use as its own name. The example above is a recursive function that finds the length of a list. Using rfn instead of labels makes it more convenient to define individual recursive functions and less convenient to define several mutually-recursive functions, but the former is by far the more common case. (The name rfn was suggested by Dorai Sitaram.) Arc macros are also first class objects. They are, as in Common Lisp, simply functions that return expressions. Arc doesn't have the hygienic macros of Scheme or Dylan. Or rather it doesn't require you to use them; something like that may be supplied as a library, but programmers can also have access to raw macroexpansion. This is another case where our axiom that the user is a good programmer simplifies matters. As an expert, the user will not be thrown by the prospect of variable capture (indeed will often do it deliberately), but will definitely not like a macro mechanism that takes away some of the power of defmacro. Because macros are first-class objects, there is no need for Common Lisp's macrolet. You can give a macro local scope with let, just as you would give a value to any other variable. Making macros first-class objects may wreak havoc with compilation. We're hoping that between inference and declarations that it will be possible to get fast code when it's needed. Macros are going to be a focus in Arc, because we think they're one of the biggest wins in Lisp. As well as traditional expression-based macros, Arc may have macros driven by code-walkers looking at multiple expressions. This may interact with Arc's programmable syntax in useful ways. 9. Binding - with like CL let:
      > (with (x 'a y 'b)
          (list x y))
      (A B)
- let for single variable case:
      > (let x 'a
          (cons x 5))
      (A . 5)
- both macros on function call Arc has a macro for introducing new variable bindings called with. It's like the let of Common Lisp and Scheme, except that it uses fewer parentheses. In my Scheme and Common Lisp code, most lets introduce one variable. So in Arc we use the name let for this more common case. Both with and let are the obvious macros on function application. For example, (let x 3 (foo x)) expands into ((fn (x) (foo x)) 3). Whenever possible, operators like these that can be implemented in Arc will be officially defined by a piece of Arc source code. They need not be implemented this way, or described this way in tutorials, but if a programming languge is good, source code should make the best spec. 10. Iteration - CL do is hard to read. Solve the common cases. - Arc's 4 basic iterators:
      > (for (= i 0) (< i 10) (++ i)
          (pr i))
      0123456789
      NIL
      > (to i 10 (pr i))
      0123456789
      NIL
      > (each x '(a b c) (pr x))
      ABC
      NIL
      > (let i 0
          (while (< (++ i) 10) (pr i)))
      123456789
      NIL
- Like with and let, macros on function calls Forms for iteration are another open question in the Lisp community. The traditional Lisp do is general but too hard to read. If do was a natural way to express iterations, I would by now be used to it, but when I see a do I have to stop and decode it, and when I write one I have to stop and figure out how to express the iteration I want. In other words, do feels like object code. Our take on iteration is that there are a handful of common cases. If you support those directly, you'll catch nearly all the interations people actually write. If anyone misses do enough, they can always write it as a macro. Arc has four iteration operators: for, which is like C's for except that bindings created by the initialization forms are local variables in the loop body; to, which is like Common Lisp's dotimes but without the form for a return value; each, which is like Common Lisp's dolist, but works for any compound data object (lists, strings, vectors, etc), and again has no return value form, and while, which evaluates its body while a test expression returns true. All of these iteration operators are defined (though not necessarily implemented) as the obvious macros on recursive function application. 11. Iteration Captures - while captures it:
      (while (read) (pr it))
- All capture keep and sum:
      > (each x '("al" "bob" "joe")
          (if (> (len x) 2) (keep x)))
      ("bob" "joe")
      > (to x 5
          (sum x)
          (pr x))
      01234
      10
(Can't use both.) Like if, while leaves the variable it bound to the value returned by the test expression. In addition, all the iteration operators leave keep and sum bound within the body to functions that accumulate values. Calling keep accumulates a list of values and calling sum accumulates a sum. You can call either one wherever in the loop you want, and as often as you want, but you can't call both in the same loop. If you do call keep or sum, the iteration expression will return the accumulated value, otherwise it will return nil. We may generalize accumulation to allow any function to be applied to the accumulated value, and maybe write keep and sum as macros on this. 12. Data Types
    Symbol
    Number (same as CL)
    Cons
    Character
    String
    Array
    Class, Obj
    DB (hash/alist)
    Function
    Macro
    Likely more
Here is a quick list of the data types so far. They're about what you'd expect. We're very likely to add more once we get to dealing with things like threads and exceptions. 13. Compounds = Functions on Indices
    > ("hello" 2)
    \l
    > (map "carpet" '(3 4 1 2))
    (\p \e \a \r)
    CL:   (aref a 5)
    C:    a[5]
    Arc:  (a 5)
Any compound data object (meaning one with several separately addressable parts) behaves like a function on indices. So for example to get the third element of a list you "call" the list with 2 as an argument. This makes programs shorter and saves us having separate access functions for each data type. You can literally use compound data objects anywhere you could use a function, including as the first argument to map (like Common Lisp's mapcar, but works on any sequence). 14. Strings Work Like Lists
    > (car "abc")
    \a
    > (cons \a "bc")
    "abc"
Contagion as with ints and floats
      > (+ "abc" '(d e))
      (\a \b \c D E)
Should we allow nonchars in strings? This one is a bit of a radical idea, but we thought we would try it and see how it works. In Arc, strings work like lists: the car of a string is a character, and the cdr is another string with the same characters except the first. We've found recursion on lists to be a very useful technique, and so maybe it will be equally good for processing strings. This could be terribly inefficient, of course, and we plan to let the programmer declare when he wants to that he doesn't need to do this to some strings and they should be represented as simple contiguous chunks of memory (i.e. unboxed). This raises an interesting possibility. When strings are in effect lists, why not let the programmer insert arbitrary objects into them? It could be useful to insert some object that had its own pr method, for example. So far strings can only contain characters, but we'll see. When you combine strings with lists, you get something like floating point contagion. Strings are a specific kind of list, like integers are a specific kind of real number, and when you combine you get a result of the more general type. 15. Classes and Objects Single inheritance (may change)
    (= pt (class nil 'x 0 'y 0))
    (type pt (x 0) (y 0))
    (= p1 (new pt))
    > (p1 'x)
    0
    > (++ (p1 'x))
    1
We look on object-oriented programming as a type of abstraction that is often useful, rather than an end in itself. The real test of a feature is whether it will actually make your source code shorter and simpler. To start with at least Arc has a minimal object system that lets you do the things we know people need to do. Classes are first-class objects that you can create with the class operator. It takes a parent object (or nil) followed by a list of field names alternating with default values. Field names can be anything, not just symbols. There is also type macro that expands into a call to class, for the common case of a named class with no parent and field names that are symbols; the syntax is very like Common Lisp's defstruct. There is only single inheritance so far. It would not be difficult to have multiple inheritance, but a poll of eminent hacker friends indicated that none of them found it super useful. You can make an instance of a class by calling new on the class. You refer to fields in instances (or classes, if you want to) the same way you refer to part of any compound data structure, by calling the object as a function on indices, in this case field names. 16. Overloading - Anything can be an obj field name. - Overload by using a fn as a name.
      (= pt (class nil
              'x 0
              'y 0
              pr my-pr))
- Means dispatch on first arg. - (Not great for cons, so maybe a way to declare pivotal arg of a function.) You can overload a function by giving an object a field whose name is that function (the actual function). When an expression is evaluated, if the first argument is an instance (or class) with a field whose name is that function, the value stored in that field (which must also be a function) is called on the same arguments instead. In the example on the slide, pt is a class that get printed differently. When pr is called on a child of pt, my-pr (whatever that is) gets invoked instead. This plan for overloading amounts to dispatching on the first argument. That doesn't work well with cons, for example, where the pivotal argument is really the second one. It could be that cons is an anomaly (its arguments are in that order for visual reasons, and that must be rare). If it isn't, we may add some way of saying which is the pivotal argument in a function. 17. DBs are hashes/alists
    (newdb eq 'x 'a 'y 'b)
    (db x 'a y 'b)
    > (each x (db x 1 y 2)
        (pr x)
        (keep key))
    12
    (X Y)
Lookup failure returns *fail* Arc has a kind of data repository called a db that you can think of as a hash table, though the internal representation is unspecified (in some cases the compiler might choose to make it be an alist). (This idea was suggested by Erann Gat.) The keys of a db can be any kind of object, like field names in an instance. However, you can add and remove entries whenever you like, and you can also specify the function you want to define equality for keys. You can create a db by calling either newdb, or the shorter db which assumes that lookup equality test is eq, and the keys are symbols. When you're doing a lookup, what do you do when you don't find anything? The traditional Lisp answer (as in e.g. assoc) would be to return nil, but in that case how do you distinguish between not finding anything and finding nil? Arc's answer is to have a global variable *fail* that is used by lookup functions that don't find any matches. It's bound to nil by default, which is the right thing nearly all the time; when it isn't, you can wrap the lookup in a let that binds *fail* to a gensym. 18. Parameter Lists Parms are symbols or (opt | get | ds ...)
    (def foo (x (ds (i j)) (get m n) (opt q 'a) . z)
      (list x i j m n q z))
    > (foo 1 '(red green) (db m 'a n 'b) 'hel 'lo)
    (1 RED GREEN A B HEL (LO))
(Syntax will help here.)
    > (let (ds (x y)) '(a b)
        (list x y))
    (A B)
Arc allows three things in parameter lists besides ordinary symbols: (opt var default) which indicates an optional parameter whose value defaults to default; (ds pattern) which matches a pattern of variables against an incoming list, like Common Lisp destructuring-bind; and (get vars) which picks one or more variables out of an incoming db or instance with corresponding keys. We're expecting get parameters to play the role that keyword parameters do in Common Lisp, and we hope to compile calls into similar code (i.e. not actually create the dbs). Arc also supports rest parameters, which occur after a dot in the parameter list and are assigned all the remaining values in the call. Because we got rid of the extra non-variable tokens that get included in Common Lisp parameter lists, we can define let and with as the obvious macros on function calls. So for example we get the equivalent of Common Lisp's destructuring-bind for free: just use a ds form as a parameter to let or with. Using a get form to destructure on instances will also be convenient. 19. Speed - Moon: hard to tell what's expensive. - SICP: programs "for people to read" - Profiler should tell, not language. - Especially for server-based apps. David Moon once told me that Lisp makes it hard for programmers to tell what's expensive. That sounds like a problem. At the same time, Abelson and Sussman say (and I agree) that "programs must be written for people to read, and only incidentally for machines to execute." How are we to reconcile these two ideas? I agree that, most of all, a language must be a good tool for thinking in. That's what made Lisp good in the first place. And yet, like anyone, I like fast code. I think the way out is to take the burden of showing what's expensive off the language. Instead of trying to make the language suggest what's expensive, just make the language convenient for expressing ideas, and have a profiler to show what's expensive. The Scheme language sneakily increased the scope of the language designer's powers. From very early, maybe from the begining, the Scheme spec said that conforming implementations must do tail call elimination. The first time I read this, I thought "wait, can you require this in a spec?" Arc will see this increase, and raise it by some standards for profiling. The way to get fast code in Arc will be to profile it and then add declarations that improve efficiency where needed. As in Common Lisp, declarations will be optimization advice to the compiler; they should not affect the meaning of the program. Arc is intended for server-based applications, and profiling is especially good there because you can profile your program's actual behavior. You don't have to rely on test suites; you can watch actual users.